JavaThe LandClimatePlants and AnimalsThe PeopleHistoryIndian InfluencesIslamizationJava, island of the Malay Archipelago,southern Indonesia, bounded on the north by the Java Sea, on the east by Bali Strait, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the west by Sunda Strait. Java extends in a generally easterly and westerly direction for a distance of about 1050 km (about 650 mi). The maximum width of the island, which lies about midway between the 5th and 10th parallels of south latitude, is about 204 km (about 127 mi). top||next|
Java is traversed from east to west by a volcanic mountain chain. This longitudinal uplift has approximately 110 volcanic centers, including about 35 active craters. Semeru (3676 m/12,060 ft), situated in the eastern portion of the island, is the highest volcano and one of the most active. Elevations in western Java are generally lower, rarely exceeding 1737 m (5700 ft). Besides Semeru, the most active volcanoes of Java include Bromo, Kawah Ijen, and Tangkubanperahu. Java has been the scene of a number of disastrous volcanic eruptions, notably that of Mount Ringgit in 1686, when about 10,000 lives were lost, and that of Papandayan in 1772, when about 3000 persons were killed. A low coastal plain, with a maximum width of about 64 km (about 40 mi), adjoins the central mountain chain on the north. The southern part of the island is occupied by a series of limestone ridges, which form a precipitous coastal escarpment. The rivers of Java are generally swift, narrow, and shallow. The Lasolo River, about 540 km (about 335 mi) in length, is the largest stream. The best natural harbors are on the northern coast.
Temperatures as high as 37° C (99° F) occur at midday in the coastal and lowland regions of Java, and the relative humidity often exceeds 80 percent. During the rainy season, from November to April, ocean breezes and frequent thunderstorms have a cooling influence. At elevations above 610 m (2000 ft) temperate climatic conditions prevail, and temperatures as low as -2° C (27° F) occur at extreme elevations. The mean annual precipitation is about 2030 mm (about 80 in). Wide regional variations occur, however, with extremes ranging from an annual maximum of about 4215 mm (about 166 in) at Bogor to an annual minimum of about 890 mm (about 35 in) at Assembagus.
The vegetation of Java is luxuriant, particularly along the lower slopes of the central mountain chain and on the coastal plain. In addition to a broad variety of plants, numerous species of trees, including palms, bamboo, acacia, rubber, and teak, abound in this zone, which is confined largely to the area below 518 m (1700 ft). The teak forests, one of the most valuable natural resources of Java, are extensive. Among the trees common to the higher slopes of the central uplift are the magnolia, rasamala, oak, elm, laurel, maple, and chestnut. Stands of timber occupy approximately 23 percent of the total surface of the island. Java also has a numerous and diversified fauna. Noteworthy animals are the one-horned rhinoceros, tiger, leopard, banteng (wild ox), wild pig, lemur, and several species of ape. The island is the habitat of more than 400 species of birds, including the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus), the green peacock, 2 species of parrot, the swift (Collocalia), 10 species of pigeon, 2 species of cuckoo, and 11 species of heron. Among the reptilian fauna are the great python (Python reticulatus), cobra, a species of adder, and the crocodile. Some crocodiles attain 9 m (30 ft) in length. The coastal and inland waters teem with fish, including many edible varieties. Crabs, crayfish, and lobsters are numerous.
The population of Java is composed largely of Malayan peoples, who speak various dialects of the Malay language; a majority of the population belongs to the Sundanese, the Javanese, and the Madurese dialect-speaking groups. The Sundanese inhabit the extreme western portion of the island, the Javanese inhabit the central part, and the Madurese inhabit the eastern part. The overwhelming majority of the population is Muslim.
Several fossils of early forms of humans have been found in Java, including an early type of Homo erectus called Java man, found in 1891. Java man existed between 1.8 million and 800,000 years ago. Remains from 50,000 to 10,000 years ago indicate the coexistence of several direct ancestors of humans with affinities to both the northern Peking man (Homo erectus, formerly called Sinanthropus pekinensis) and to an eastern group whose fossils are found in Australia. Scattered stone tools have been found from this period; the characteristic implement was a chopper with a thick, steeply cut edge, which was occasionally pointed. Of major importance in shaping the socioeconomic base of Javanese culture was the cultivation of rice in irrigated fields. Labor and society were rooted in small villages (desas) presided over by regional chiefs. Women occupied a particularly significant position in the evolving Javanese social structure, which preserved traces of matrilineal descent and succession. Technological developments included the domestication of the ox and buffalo and use of the outrigger canoe, indicating the possibility of early maritime contact as far west as Madagascar and as far east as Easter Island. Several cultural phenomena that survive to the present day may also date from this period: the wayang (puppet-shadow theater), gamelan (wind and percussion orchestra), and batik (a technique of dyeing fabrics with the use of wax).
During the early centuries of the Christian era, cultural influences from India became predominant. Indian merchants in the spice trade brought elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, Indian literature and legal codes, and the Sanskrit language and Indian scripts (especially from southern India). These spread first to the Javanese aristocracy and later to other segments of the population. The syncretism of the new Hindu-Buddhist-Javanese culture is most evident in the 9th-century Buddhist monument of Borobudur in central Java. It was built by the Sailendras ("Lords of the Mountains"), who came to power in central and parts of western Java in the 8th century. In the 9th century Sailendra princes were the rulers of the Sumatran Empire of Sri Vijaya, through matrimonial alliances between the two power centers. The most interesting figure of the 11th century was Airlangga, who has become a legendary hero in Hindu-Javanese history. After Airlangga's death the kingdom was split, and the western portion, Kediri, became dominant and ruled until 1222. Its successor was the kingdom of Singosari, which lasted until about 1292. Kublai Khan's Mongols raided the island in 1293, but without any significant success. The last great Hindu-Javanese kingdom was that of Majapahit, which existed during the 14th century. The founding minister of the kingdom, Gajah Mada, is one of the great figures in Indonesian history. The empire established by Gajah Mada is believed by some historians to have encompassed the whole of present-day Indonesia.
The Javanese cultural mix was further enriched with the spread of Islam in the 15th and 16th centuries. The coastal population and the aristocracy were the first elements to be influenced by the new culture, but by the 16th century the nominally Muslim Mataram Empire had established control over the entire island. Portuguese traders visited the island in the 16th century. Toward the close of that century, Dutch traders ended Portuguese commercial influence on Java. The establishment of Batavia (now Jakarta) in 1619 signaled the birth of the new Dutch empire. The Dutch swiftly enlarged their sphere of influence and by 1755 controlled a large portion of the island. During the Napoleonic Wars, the Dutch administration in Java was manipulated by the French, who at the time occupied the Netherlands. In 1811 the British took over and remained in control of Java until 1816, when the island was restored to Dutch sovereignty. Between 1825 and 1830 Dutch authority in Java was unsuccessfully challenged by a Javanese rebellion. Thereafter, the island remained under the rule of the Netherlands until the Japanese occupation, begun in March 1942, during World War II (1939-1945). See also Indonesia, Republic of.